Wednesday, 6 September 2017

CCNA 200-125: CHEAT SHEETS

CCNA: BGP CHEAT SHEET
We really want to show you why we need BGP first but it is very difficult to explain without understanding a bit about BGP. So we will learn some basic knowledge about BGP first.
First we need to understand about the different between Interior Gateway Protocol and Exterior Gateway Protocol. The difference between them is shown below:

– Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP): A routing protocol operating within an Autonomous System (AS) like OSPF, EIGRP… Usually routers running IGP are under the same administration (of a company, corporation, individual)
– Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): A routing protocol operating between different AS. BGP is the only EGP used nowadays
In the topology above R1, R2 and R3 should run an IGP to communicate with each other because they are in the same AS. But to connect with other routers in another AS (like a different ISP), R1 and R3 must use an EGP.
With BGP, the term autonomous system (AS) refers to a network that operates separately from other networks and usually operates within a single administrative domain. Each AS is represented by an AS number. It is similar to EIGRP AS in this aspect. BGP is used mainly by the Internet Service Provider (ISP) all over the world. Each ISP usually has one BGP AS number (some very big ISP may have a few AS numbers). BGP AS numbers can be between 1 to 65,535.
In the topology above R1 and R3 are operating in BGP AS 1. If an AS connects to the public Internet using an EGP, then it must be assigned a unique AS number which is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). IANA manages the AS numbers from 1 to 64,512 for public use (similar to public IP addresses) while 64,512 to 65,535 numbers are reserved for private use (similar to private IP addresses).
If we don’t want to show the routers inside each AS we can simply ignore them:

In fact, the Internet that we are going “online” everyday is a collection of interconnected autonomous systems and BGP is running to provide routing between them.
Other BGP terms that you should learn are listed below:
+ BGP speaker: a router running BGP
+ BGP peer or BGP neighbor: Any two routers that have formed a TCP connection to exchange BGP routing information (as BGP runs over TCP on port 179, not UDP)
+ Prefix: Maybe you learned the word “subnet”. In BGP world, it is usually called “prefix” because BGP usually does not advertise small subnets. It advertises blocks of large subnets so “prefix” is often used instead
+ Internal BGP (iBGP): refers to the BGP neighbor relationship within the same AS. The iBGP neighbor does not have to be directly connected
+ External BGP (eBGP): refers to the BGP neighbor relationship between two peers belongs to different AS. It is recommended that eBGP should be directly connected. Never run an IGP between eBGP peers.
In the below topology suppose all routers are running BGP then R1 is considered internal BGP to R2 and R3 (as they are running same AS 1) but is external BGP to R4. R5 is internal to R4 and R6 but external to R3.



Why do we need BGP?
Maybe you will raise a question: “Why can’t we only use OSPF or EIGRP instead?”
The most important reason is BGP greatly supports path control.
Maybe you learned and understood about EIGRP, OSPF routing protocols. They are different but both of them have the same purpose: find the most optimal path to the destination. But when we are working in ISP level we don’t care much about this. In ISP we really want to control the path, even it is not the most optimal path, to the destination. For example, how can you choose which path to go from AS 1 to AS 3 in the topology below?


Suppose an IGP (like OSPF) is using all the way. With default values and same bandwidth on all the links, OSPF will choose the path AS 1 -> AS 2 -> AS 3. In order to manipulate the path we will have to change the bandwidth of some interfaces on the edge routers of each AS. A few months later we want to change the path then we have to configure the bandwidth again. With BGP we can easily define the path like this: “to go from AS 1 to AS 3 we will go through AS 2 then AS 4 then AS 5”. Moreover we can easily control the ratio of traffic passing through each link. BGP can do this because it has a rich set of features to control the paths to the destination. One of the most popular features BGP uses to control the path is known as “attributes”. However, discussion about “attributes” is out of the scope of this tutorial, which is dedicated for CCNA learners.
In fact, BGP is a path vector protocol. Path vector protocol does not rely on the bandwidth of the links (like OSPF) or hop count (like RIP) or a group of parameters (like EIGRP). Path vector protocol relies on the number of autonomous systems it has to go through. In other words, it choose the path with least number of autonomous systems (shortest AS Path) to reach the destination, provided that the path is loop-free. Of course we can change the path easily for our purpose.
For example in the topology above, if all the values are default and same, BGP will choose the path AS 1 -> AS 2 -> AS 3 for traffic from AS 1 destined to AS 3 because it only has to go through one AS (AS 2).
Another reason to use BGP is BGP can handle very big routing tables. The ISP level of routing do had large number of routes, which IGP cannot handle. BGP handle such large routes between AS. Currently the global Internet routing table contains over 500,000 routes.
Another good reason to use BGP is because the great benefits of MPLS-based virtual private networks (MPLS VPN). MPLS VPN is beyond the scope of this tutorial but in general MPLS VPN provides traffic separation and path isolation on a shared network infrastructure and BGP is the background layer so that VPN can operate well. For example your corporation is running Voice over IP (VoIP), Video on Demand (VoD), Internet service… on the same infrastructure then you can use MPLS VPN to separate these services as if they were running on theirs own infrastructure. 

CCNA: ACCESS CONTROL LIST (ACL) CHEAT SHEET

Overview
An ACL consists of sequential series of statements known as an Access Control Entry (ACE). Each ACE specifies a matching criteria and an action which can be either permit or deny. The matching criteria can be various things such as source/destination address or protocol such as TCP or UDP. For an individual ACE all configured matching values must match in order for that ACE to be considered as match. It recommended to include the most relevant ACE in the beginning of the ACL. If a packet does not match any of the access control entries in an ACL then it matches an Implicit Deny ACE that is present at the bottom in all ACLs. The Implicit Deny ACE is a deny all statement that denies all packets. In case this behavior is not required and packets that do not match any ACE must be forwarded, an ACE must be specified at the bottomof ACL that permits all packets. This type of ACE is known as explicit permit.

A Access Control List is a multipurpose tool that is typically used as filtering tool. ACLs can be used for
_ Filtering traffic entering and existing an interface
_ Controlling access to VTY lines
_ Route update filtering
_ As a traffic classification tool when used with QoS
_ Dial-on-demand routing (DDR) with ISDN
_ Restricting output of debug commands

Types of Access-lists:
There are two types of IP Access Lists
1. Standard ACL
Traffic is filtered based on source address of the IP packet. Since only the source address is matched, therefore, standard ACLs are efficient in filtering traffic closet to the destination

2. Extended
Traffic can be filtered based on source address as well as destination address and other filed in IP header including source and destination protocol and port number, ToS and IP Precedence bits and TCP flags, TTL value.

Numbered and Named ACLs
An ACL can be identified as either named or numbered.
Numbered standard ACLs range 1-to-99 and 1300-to-1999 and extended ACL ranges from
100-to-199 and 2000-to-2699

ACL Rule
Only one ACL per interface, per protocol, per direction is allowed
Inbound packets are always processed by an ACL (if applied) before being routed.
Outbound packets are routed before processed by an ACL (if applied)
ACLs are processed in sequential order, therefore most specific traffic match must occur in the beginning of the ACL

Wildcard Mask
Address filtering uses wildcard masking indicate whether to check or ignore corresponding IP address bit when comparing address bits in an ACL entry
Wildcard masks are sometimes referred as an inverted mask because 1 and 0 means the opposite of subnet mask.
Wildcard mask bit 0 means check the corresponding bit and 1 means ignore the corresponding bit

ACL Syntax
An ACL is implemented in two steps:define an ACL with “access-list” or “ip access-list” command apply the ACL under specific interface in the required direction with “ip access-group” command

STEP-1: Define an ACL
Standard ACL: Access-list acl-number {permit|deny} {host|source source-wildcard|any}
Extended ACL:access-list acl-number {permit|deny} protocol source wildcard [operator [port]] destination wildcard [operator [port]] [precedence precedence] [tos tos]
Named Standard ACL:ip access-list standard name {permit|deny} {source [source-wildcard] | any} [log]
Named Extended ACL:ip access-list extended name {permit|deny} protocol source wildcard [operator [port]] destination wildcard [operator [port]] [precedence precedence] [tos tos]

STEP-2: Apply the ACLinterface ip access-group {number|name} {in|out}


Configuration example:
Standard ACL:
Configuration Example: Standard ACL
Requirement: Web-Server 10.1.1.10 behind R2 should not be accessible by hosts 192.168.1.10 & 11
Router R2:
access-list 10 deny host 192.168.1.10
access-list 10 deny host 192.168.1.11
access-list 10 permit any
!
interface serial0/0
ip address 172.16.12.2 255.255.255.0
ip access-group 10 in

Requirement: Any access on port 80 should not be allowed from host 192.168.1.10 and 11 to web-server 10.1.1.10. Other hosts on the 192.168.1.0/24 network should be allowed access the web server only on port 80
Router R1:
access-list 101 deny tcp host 192.168.1.10 host 10.1.1.10 eq 80
access-list 101 deny tcp host 192.168.1.11 host 10.1.1.10 eq 80
access-list 101 permit tcp 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 host 10.1.1.10 eq 80
!
interface fastethernet0/0
ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
ip access-group 101 in

Configuration Example: Named Extended ACL
Requirement: Only 192.168.1.10 should be allowed access to web-server 10.1.1.10 on port 80 and 3389.
Other hosts should be allowed access only on port 8080.
Router R1:
ip access-list extended web-server-acl
permit tcp host 192.168.1.10 host 10.1.1.1 eq 80
permit tcp host 192.168.1.10 host 10.1.1.1 eq 3389
permit tcp any host 10.1.1.10 eq 8080
!
interface fastethernet0/0
ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
ip access-group web-server-acl in

Troubleshooting Command
1. show running-configuration | include access-list

2. show access-list [name | number]

CCNA: IP version 6

IP version 6 (IPv6)
Why IPv6?
IPv4 has the following issues:
1. Address depletion
2. Large internet routing tables
3. Lack of true end-to-endness
- IPv4 is patched to deal with the address depletion issue
- NAT hides the true source of the network
IPv6 provides the following benefits over IPv4:
_ Address space: 2^128 = 3.4 x 1038 addresses
_ Global route aggregation
_ Elimination of NAT
_ Broadcast elimination
_ Compatibility for IPv4 network
_ Improved security with built-in IPSec
_ Stateless Auto-configuration

IPv6 Address and Representation
An IPv6 address is divided into 8-octets, each consisting of 4 hexadecimal digits separated by a colon. For example:
1. 2345:AF45:00AA:0000:0000:0079:90AB:CDEF
2. FA00:0001:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:1234
IPv6 address can be shorten:
_ Omitting leading zeros. The address in example number one and two can be written as: 2345:AF45:AA:0:0:79:90AB:CDEF,
FA00:1:0:00:0:0:0:1234
_ Replacing consecutive zeros with a double colon (::). The address in example number two can be written as: FA00:1::1234
Replacing the consecutive zero is actually a two step process. First the leading zeros are omitted, then the consecutive zeros are replaced with double colon

Network Addressing
Typically 64-bit network and 64-bit host The network portion is further subdivided into:
_ 48-bit Global Routing Prefix: allows routing to the site in internet
_ 16-bit Subnet ID: allows an administrator to create subnet within a site
An IPv6 address is usually presented as:
Global Routing Prefix (Usually Assigned by ISP) 48-bits
Subnet ID 16-bits
Host ID (Usually Interface ID) 64-bits

IPv6 addresses don’t use the lengthy subnet mask notation; instead CIDR notation is used to indicate the prefix length. For example: FA00:1::/48 mean that 48-bits network

Address Types
There are three types of IPv6 addresses:

1. Unicast
o Address for a single interface
o Packet destined for that address is delivered specifically to that interface

2. Multicast
o Packet sent to multicast address goes to all SUSCRIBERS. Example: FF02:9

3. Anycast
o Multiple devices share the same address
o Router decides what is the closet and send to that system
o An Anycast address cannot be Source Address (SA) of a packet
o It is often used to replicate important network resources such as DNS root servers, web servers and multicast rendezvous points (RPs)

Address Assignment
IPv6 addresses can be assigned in three possible ways:
1. Static configuration with “ipv6 address” command
2. Via DHCP for IPv6
3. Stateless Auto-configuration with “ipv6 address auto-config” command

Host Address Assignment
The host address can be assigned in two ways:
1. Static assignment with “ipv6 address” command
2. EUI-64 address assignment with “ipv6 address eui-64” command. Host address is calculated from the MAC address

The EUI-64 address is calculated in two steps:
1. Invert the seventh most significant bit in MAC address
2. Insert the “FFFE” in the middle

Example: Consider the MAC Address 1234.5679.9012:
1. Invert the 7th most significant bit
o 1=0001 and 2=0010. Inverting the 7th bit gives us: 0001 0000 = 10. The MAC address becomes: 1034.5679.9012
2. Insert FFFE in the middle
o The required host address is: 1034:56FF:FE78:9012

Configuration Example: Static IPv6 Address Assignment
Router R1:
ipv6 unicast-routing Turn on IPv6 Addressing
!
interface FastEthernet0/0
ipv6 address 155:1::1/64
ipv6 enable

R1#sh ipv6 interface
FastEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::CA00:4FF:FEB4:0 Link Local Address
Global unicast address(es):
155:1::1, subnet is 155:1::/64 Unicast Address
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1
FF02::1:FF00:1
FF02::1:FFB4:0
MTU is 1500 bytes
ICMP error messages limited to one every 100 milliseconds
ICMP redirects are enabled
ND DAD is enabled, number of DAD attempts: 1
ND reachable time is 30000 milliseconds

Configuration Example: EUI-64 Address Assignment
Router R1:
Ipv6 unicast-routing
!
interface FastEthernet0/0
mac-address 1234.5678.9012
ipv6 address 155:1::/64 eui-64
ipv6 enable

R1#sh ipv6 interface
FastEthernet0/0 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::1034:56FF:FE78:9012
Global unicast address(es):
155:1::1034:56FF:FE78:9012, subnet is 155:1::/64 Host ID created with EUI-64 address
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1
FF02::1:FF78:9012
MTU is 1500 bytes
ICMP error messages limited to one every 100 milliseconds
ICMP redirects are enabled
ND DAD is enabled, number of DAD attempts: 1
ND reachable time is 30000 milliseconds

IPv6 Transition Techniques
Dual Stack: This architecture contains both IPv4 and IPv6 Internet layers with separate protocol stacks containing separate implementations of Transport layer protocols such as TCP and UDP.

IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling: Tunneling allow the encapsulation of IPv6 traffic in IPv4 packets for the transmission of IPv6 traffic over IPv4 infrastructure.

Tunneling can be used in a variety of ways:
Router-to-Router: In this configuration IPv6/IPv4 routers connected through IPv4 infrastructure can tunnel IPv6 packets.

 Host-to-Router or Router-to-Host: In host-to-router tunneling IPv6/IPv4 hosts can tunnel IPv6 packets to an intermediary IPv6/IPv4 router that is reachable via an IPv4 infrastructure. This type of tunnel spans the first segment of the packet's end to-end path. In router-to-host tunneling IPv6/IPv4 routers can tunnel IPv6 packets to their final destination IPv6/IPv4 host.
This tunnel spans only the last segment of the end-to-end path.

Host-to-Host: IPv6/IPv4 hosts that are interconnected by an IPv4 infrastructure can tunnel IPv6 packets between themselves. In this case, the tunnel spans the entire end-to-end path that the packet takes.

Types of Tunnels
 Static: These are manually configured tunnel, unlike automatic tunnels the IPv4 address of the tunnel endpoint is not derived are not derived from addresses that are encoded in the next-hop address when forwarding the packet. IPv6 addresses are manually configured on each tunnel interface, and so are the IPv4 tunnel source and IPv4 tunnel destination configured. Static tunnels create a permanent link between two IPv6 domains over an IPv4 infrastructure.

Automatic: These types of tunnel do not require manual configuration. Automatic tunnel includes the following types

ISATAP: Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol is used to provide unicast IPv6 connectivity between IPv6/IPv4 hosts across an IPv4 intranet. ISATAP is designed for transporting IPv6 packets within a site where an IPv6 infrastructure is not yet available, ISATAP tunnels allow individual IPv4 or IPv6 dual-stack hosts within a site to communicate with other such hosts on the same virtual link, basically creating an IPv6 network using the IPv4 infrastructure. ISATAP is designed for transporting IPv6 packets within a site, not between sites. ISATAP uses unicast addresses that include a 64-bit IPv6 prefix and a 64-bit interface identifier. The interface identifier is created in modified EUI-64 format in which the first 32 bits contain the value 000:5EFE to indicate that the address is an IPv6 ISATAP address.

 6to4 Tunnels: These are point-to-multipoint tunnels used for connecting isolated IPv6 domains over IPv4 infrastructure. 6to4 treats the entire IPv4 Internet as a single NBMA virtual link. An automatic 6to4 tunnel may be configured on an edge router in an isolated IPv6 network, which creates a tunnel on a per-packet basis to an edge router in another IPv6 network over an
IPv4 infrastructure. The tunnel destination is determined by the IPv4 address of the border router extracted from the IPv6 address that starts with the prefix 2002::/16, where the format is 2002:edge-router-IPv4-address::/48. Following the embedded IPv4 address are 16 bits that can be used to number networks within the site. The edge router at each end of a
6to4 tunnel must support both the IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks. 6to4 tunnels can be configured between edge routers or between a edge router and a host.

CCNA: ROUTER INTERFACES, CABLES & CONNECTORS

Key Characteristics:
Console interfaces are primarily used to configure routers. Console Interfaces uses a Roll-Over Cable (special null modem cable configuration), (usually) with an RJ-45 on one side and a RS-323 (DB-9) interface on other side. The cable configuration is also very simple; each pin connects to the other side in reserve order, that is, pin-1 connected to pin-8 and so forth.

Basic Configuration:
configure terminal
line console 0
password
login
stopbits default value=1
databits default=8
The following depicts a roll-over cable configuration:
The baud rate can be changed from romon mode. The following syntax depicts the actual configuration:
rommon 1 > baudrate ranges from 9600 to 115kbps








AUX Port
The AUX port is usually used for Dial-In services on the router. A Null-Modem cable is used to connect the AUX port with modem. Before the modem is configured, TTY line must be initialized to:
1. allows reverse telnet to the router
2. line speed must be configured for the router to communicate with the modem

Basic Configuration:
configure terminal
line 1 AUX port is (usually) line 1
speed ranges from 9600 to 115200 in bits per seconds
stopbit usually 1, improves throughput by reducing async framing overhead
flowcontrol hardware enable the hardware based flow control
transport input


Ethernet Interface
Also called the LAN interface. Types: Straight or Cross Over Cable. Straight Cable is used for communication between different devices (e.g., switch and workstation). Cross Over cable is used to connect similar devices (e.g., routers and workstation or two workstations). The following depicts the straight and cross over cables:

Basic Configuration:
configure terminal
interface
media type this command is only available on interface with dual media type
capability
speed <10 | 100 | 1000 | auto>
duplex
ip address






Serial Interface
Also called WAN interfaces. They provide versatile speed ranges from 64kbps to OC-786. The OC series interfaces are only supported in higher platforms like 7600 series. The low end model (2600/3700/3800/2900/3900 series) usually support interfaces speed up to T3/E3.
Serial interface come in variety of formats including: RS-232, V.35, RS-449/422 and RS-530/422. Usually V.35 is used and
maximum speed is up to 2048 kbps
Basic Configuration:
configure terminal
interface serial
encapsulation default is HDLC
clock rate required on DCE end only
ip address

Virtual Terminal Lines (VTY)
Usually used for remote management of routers or switches.

Basic Configuration:
configure terminal
line vty the range depends on the hardware platform
transport input
password
login




CCNA: Wireless Local Area Nework (WLAN)

What is aWLAN?

WLAN allows a set of computers to communicate and share information without the need of physical media. WLAN uses Air as the transport medium

WLAN Standards and Governing Bodies
IEEE: Standardization of wireless LANs (802.11). IEEE has rectified the 5 major WLAN standards: 802.11, 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n
Wi-Fi Alliance: An industry consortium that encourages interoperability of products that implement WLAN standards through theirWi-Fi certified program

Radio Frequency (RF) Terminologies
RF Propagation: movement of RF signal through a medium.

Fresnel Zone: to maximize the receiver strength, one needs to minimize the effect of the out-of-phase signal by eliminating obstacles from the RF line of sight (LoS) or forbidden region because an obstacle will disturb the RF signal
Fresnel Zone (FZ): “D” is the distance between transmitter (TX) and receiver (RX). “d” is the radius of the FZ

Diffraction: the phenomenon when RF waves bent around sharp object creating new wave fronts. The higher the frequency of transmission, the higher the loss will be

Reflection: RF waves reflect from uniformly smooth non-absorbing obstacles they meet

Scattering: RF energy is reflected out of a non-uniform surface in multiple directions

Absorption: the RF energy is absorbed when it hits objects like water, wood and even people

Attenuation: the loss of radio signal strength, it limits the range of radio signals and is affected by the materials a signal must travel through (e.g. air, wood, concrete,). Free space loss is a type of attenuation that is the natural loss of the radio signal when propagating through the air without obstructions, the signal gets weaker and weaker when traveling away from the AP.

Diversity: use two or more antennas to improve the quality and reliability of a wireless link. Used especially in indoor environments, where there is not a clear line-of-sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver

Radio Frequency (RF) Terminologies




Service Set

Service Set: is a logical grouping of (wireless) devices. WLANs provide network access by broadcasting a signal across a wireless radio frequency (RF) carrier

Service Set Identifier: A receiving station can be within range of a number of transmitters. The transmitter prefaces its transmissions with a service set identifier (SSID). The receiver uses the SSID to filter through the received signals and locate the one it wants to listen to

Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS): An IBSS consists of a group of 802.11 stations communicating directly with one another. An IBSS is also referred to as an ad-hoc network because it is essentially a simple peer-to-peerWLAN

Basic Service Set (BSS): requires a specialized station known as an access point (AP). The AP is the central point of communications for all stations in a BSS. The client stations do not communicate directly with other client stations. Rather, they communicate with the AP, and the AP forwards the frames to the destination stations

Extended Service Set (ESS): Multiple infrastructure BSSs can be connected with a distribution system (DS). The collection of BSSs interconnected via the DS is known as the ESS. The DS does not have to be via a wired connection. The 802.11 specification leaves the potential for this link to be wireless. However, DS is usually a wired network. ESS also allows the facility of roaming to wireless clients


WLAN Modes

There are twoWLAN mode:
1. Ad-hoc Mode: wireless clients communicate directly. Ad-hoc mode only supports the IBSS
2. Infrastructure Mode: requires an AP. Supports BSS and ESS

WLAN Frequencies
WLAN uses the Industrial, Scientific, Mechanical (ISM) band. The ISM band consists of the following frequency ranges:
1. 2.4GHz: 802.11b/g/n WLANs
2. 5GHz: 802.11a/n

Media Access
WLAN control the media access with CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) algorithm. The CSMA/CA can be summarized in the following key points:
1. Listen to ensure that the medium (space) is not busy (no radio waves currently are being received at the frequencies to beused)
2. Set a random wait timer before sending a frame to statistically reduce the chance of devices all trying to send at the same time
3. When the random timer has passed, listen again to ensure that the medium is not busy. If it isn’t, send the frame
4. After the entire frame has been sent, wait for an acknowledgment
5. If no acknowledgment is received, resend the frame, using CSMA/CA logic to wait for the appropriate time to send again

Deployment Guidelines
The following is checklist or a basic guideline for wireless LAN deployment:
1. Decide if an Ad-hoc mode or Infrastructure mode deployment is required
2. In case of infrastructure mode, make sure availability of basic network services including DHCP, DNS, VLAN and internet (ifrequired)
3. Configuration/Verification of AP settings including SSID and clients can connect to the specified SSID
4. Configure Security for Wireless LAN and verify if the client can connect Securly.

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP): uses static (64-bit) pre-shared keys. Keys had to be exchanged manually and cannot be changed without human intervention. Only 40-bit were actually used for derivation of key therefore, it was easily crackable

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA): WPA includes the option to use dynamic key exchange, using the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP). WPA allows for the use of either IEEE 802.1X user authentication or simple device authentication using pre-shared keys. And the encryption algorithm uses the Message Integrity Check (MIC) algorithm

WPA2: includes dynamic key exchanges and stronger encryption (the AES algorithm) and user authentication.
WAP2- is not backward compatible with WPA

Troubleshooting WLANs
RF Interference: occupies the (air) medium causing delay in sending and receiving data, collisions and resulting retransmission. RF interference is usually caused by high noise level. Noise level should be less then -85dBm for the band users are operating in

Coverage Black Holes: if the wireless survey is not conducted properly, this could result in limited or no RF signal coverage causing decrease wireless performance and service interruption. If the signal strength is less than -75dBm and high retries are greater than 10 percent, this is an indication of RF coverage issue

High Utilization: is caused by larger number of simultaneous active users or application such as wireless IP telephony may cause the access point (AP) to reach it maximum capacity. This result is lower throughput per user even signal strength is excellent due to additional overhead of re-transmitted data frames. This problem can be solved by increasing the number of AP and creating smaller radio cells (also called the micro-cells). Another approach is to move applications like IP telephony to different band. For example: IP telephony using 802.11a (5GHz) and data using 802.11b/g (2.4GHz)


CCNA: EIGRP CHEAT SHEET

Key Characteristics
Type: Advance Distance Vector or Hybrid
Algorithm: Diffusing Update Algorithm(DUAL)
Standard: Cisco Propriety
Administrative Distance:
1. Internal Routes = 90
2. External Routes = 170
3. Summary Routes = 5

Metric: Composite
Transport Protocol/Protocol Number: IP/88
Routed Protocol Support: IP, IPX and AppleTalk
Authentication: Yes (MD5 only)
Supports VLSM and Route Summarization: Yes
Fastest Convergence

Router ID (RID)
RID should be a valid IP address, not a 32-bit dotted decimal number
Cisco Routers uses the following criteria to select a

router ID:
1. RID configured with “router-id” command
2. If manual RID not configured, select the highest number IP address on any loopback interface in“up/up” state
3. If loopback interfaces not configured, select the highest number IP address on any non-loopback interface in “up/up” state

Route Types and Preference
Internal Routes: routes advertised within the same AS
External Routes: routes imported from another routing domain or AS
Internal Routes are denoted with “D”
External Routes are denoted with “EX”

Routes Preference:
1. Internal Routes (90) > External Routes (170)

Metric Calculation
EIGRP uses a composite metric. Composite metric consists of bandwidth, load, delay, reliability and MTU
By default, only bandwidth and delay are considered
Metric=256 x [(10^7/minimum-bandwidth) +cumulative delay]
Bandwidth is in kbps and delay is in micro-seconds
Minimum bandwidth represents least bandwidth along the entire route
Cumulative Delay represents the sum of all delay values for all links in the route

EIGRP Table Types
EIGRP maintains three types of tables:
1. Neighbor Table: keeps state information regarding neighbors, and is displayed using the “show ip eigrp neighbors” command
2. Topology Table: EIGRP Update messages fill the routers’ EIGRP topology tables. Topology table can be displayed with “show ip eigrp topology” command
3. (IP) Routing Table: Based on the contents of the topology table, each router chooses its best routes and installs these routes in its respective IP routing table.

The IP routing table is displayed with “show ip route” command
Neighbor Discovery
EIGRP sends hellos on multicast address 224.0.0.10 to discover potential neighbors. Hellos always use unreliable delivery
To become neighbors EIGRP routers must be agree on the following parameters:
1. Autonomous System (AS) number
2. Same primary subnet
3. Authentication (if used)
4. K-values must match

Packet Types
Hello: used in neighbor discovery/recovery process, are always multicast and use unreliable delivery (no acknowledgement is required)
Acknowledgment: are hello packets without any data and are always unicast & use unreliable delivery
Update: Convey route information. Updates are non-periodic, partial, bounded, can be unicast or multicast and use reliable delivery
Query and Reply: used by DUAL finite state machine. Queries can be unicast or multicast and replies are always unicast, using RTP.

Topology Exchange
EIGRP exchanges topology updates on multicast address 224.0.0.10 using Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) If an acknowledgment is not received for the multicast update, the update is then re-transmitted as unicast to the un-responsive neighbor. After 16 unicast re-transmission, the neighbor is declared dead

EIGRP updates are:
1. Non-Periodic: updates are sent only when some topological or metric change has occurred
2. Partial: only relevant changes are advertised
3. Bounded: updates are sent to affecting neighbors

Timers
Hello Time: 5 seconds for link faster than T1 and 60 seconds for T1 and slower links
Hold Time: 3 times the hello. 15 seconds for links faster than T1 and 180 seconds for T1 and slower links
Smooth Round Trip Time (SRTT): the average time elapsed (in milliseconds) between the transmission of packet to neighbor and the receipt of acknowledge
Retransmission Timeout (RTO): time between subsequent unicast messages. It is the time that router will wait for an acknowledgement after sending unicast packet sent after a multicast has failed

DUAL Terms and Route Selection
Adjacency: logical session between two neighbors over which route information is exchanged
Reported Distance (RD): is the distance (metric) towards a destination as advertised by an upstream neighbor.
Feasible Distance (FD): Lowest calculated distance (metric) to the destination from local router’s perspective.

Some books/texts use Advertised Distance instead of Reported Distance.
Successor: A particular route with the best metric is a successor. It may also refer to a router that is being used as the next-hop for that particular route. With two or more successors (routes) if FDs are the same, load balancing happens automatically

Feasible Successor (FS): Backup router with loop-free path for a particular route. FS is a neighbor who’s Reported or Advertised Distance (AD/RD) is less than the current Feasible Distance (FD) for that particular route. Feasible Successor is one who meets the feasible condition
Feasible Condition (FC): RD of a particular route from a neighbor which is not the current successor for that route must be less than the FD for that particular route. The logic is simple: if a neighbors metric for a route is less than mine, then I know the neighbor doesn't have a loop going through me.

Equal and Unequal Cost Load Balancing
EIGRP support equal and unequal cost load balancing . Equal cost load balancing is enabled by default. Routes with equal feasible distance are installed by default in the routing table
Variance is used to achieve unequal cost load balancing. Default value for variance is: 1, which will cause the EIGRP to select the best/lowest cost path only . Variance defines the multiplier by which a metric may differ from the lowest cost route. By default 4-paths are allowed but can be extended to 16-paths with “maximum-paths ” command
Variance is given by: higher costmetric / lower costmetric
Rule for Variance:
1. Load balance path should lead to successor or feasible successor (that is if it met the Feasibility Condition)
Configuration Example: network statement and authentication



Configuration Example: network statement and authentication

Router R1:
key chain EIGRP_KC
key 1
key-string cisco
!
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.1 255.255.255.252
ip authentication eigrp 100 md5
ip authentication key-chain eigrp 100 EIGRP_KC
!
router eigrp 100
no auto-summary
network 192.168.12.0
network 10.1.1.0

Router R2:
key chain EIGRP_KC
key 1
key-string cisco
!
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.2.2.2 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.2 255.255.255.252
ip authentication eigrp 100 md5
ip authentication key-chain eigrp 100 EIGRP_KC
!
router eigrp 100
no auto-summary
network 192.168.12.0
network 10.2.2.0

R1#sh ip route | b Gateway
Gateway of last resort is not set
192.168.12.0/30 is subnetted, 1 subnets
C 192.168.12.0 is directly connected, Serial0/0
10.0.0.0/32 is subnetted, 2 subnets
D 10.2.2.2 [90/2297856] via 192.168.12.2, 00:00:14, Serial0/0
C 10.1.1.1 is directly connected, Loopback0

Configuration Example: variance and unequal cost load balancing



Router R1:
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.1 255.255.255.252
!
interface fastethernet0/0
ip address 192.168.21.1 255.255.255.252
!
router eigrp 100
variance 15
network 10.1.1.0
network 192.168.12.0
network 192.168.21.0
no auto-summary

Router R2:
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.2.2.2 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.2 255.255.255.252
!
interface fastethernet0/0
ip address 192.168.21.2 255.255.255.252
!
router eigrp 100
variance 15
network 10.2.2.0
network 192.168.12.0
network 192.168.21.0
no auto-summary

R1#sh ip route eigrp
10.0.0.0/32 is subnetted, 2 subnets
D 10.2.2.2 [90/156160] via 192.168.21.2, 00:03:21, FastEthernet0/0
[90/2297856] via 192.168.12.2, 00:03:21, Serial0/0
R2#sh ip route eigrp
10.0.0.0/32 is subnetted, 2 subnets
D 10.1.1.1 [90/156160] via 192.168.21.1, 00:03:06, FastEthernet0/0
[90/2297856] via 192.168.12.1, 00:03:06, Serial0/0
CCNA: EIGRP CHEAT SHEET

Troubleshooting Command
1. show ip protocols
2. show ip eigrp neighbors
3. show ip eigrp interfaces
4. show ip eigrp topology
5. show ip route
6. debug eigrp packets [hello | ack | query | reply | update]
7. debug eigrp fsm


CCNA: IP Addressing and IP Services

What is an IP Address?
An IP (version 4) address consists of 32-bits (divided in 4-octets) and usually written in dotted decimal format Each octet consists of 8-bits or 1-byte
An IP address is necessary for an inter-networking device to communicate and exchange information with each other
An IP address is divided into two parts: Network and Host
Classes of IP Addresses
Class A: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Class E is reserved and can not be assigned. Class D is reserved for multicast application. Only Class A, B and C are available to address assignment
Class A has 8-bits reserved for network, allowing for 28 networks and 224 hosts. The network mask for Class A networks is 255.0.0.0
Class B has 16-bits reserved for network, allowing 216 networks and 216 hosts. The network mask for Class B networks is 255.255.0.0
Class C has 24-bits reserved for network, allowing 224 networks and 28 hosts. The network mask for Class C networks is 255.255.255.0

Configuration Example: IPv4 address assignment
Router R1:
interface fastethernet0/0
ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
Reserved Addresses
RFC 1918 define thes following reserved address spaces to be used in private network:
10.0.0 / 8
172.16.0.0 / 12
192.168.0.0 / 16
Apart from above mentioned addresses, 0.0.0.0 is used to assign and denote default routes. It cannot be assigned to
a host. 127.0.0.0 is reserved for loopback and it is used for testing purposes
IP Subnetting

Subnetting allows sub-dividing the flat address spaces (Class A,B and C) into smaller networks called Subnets
A number of bits (according to the requirement) are taken from the host portion of an IP address to create the subnetworks. The following figure depicts the number of bits and address format when Subnetting is used Example: Network 192.168.1.0 needs to be subnetted to allow room for 8 additional subnetworks. 192.168.1.0 is class C address, which implies the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0.



IP Subnetting
Step 1: How many bits to borrow to create the required subnets.
2n = number of subnets, where the exponent n is bits borrowed from the host portion.
Thus we need 3 bits create 8 subnets as 23 = 8 subnets.
Step 2: Calculate the new subnet mask
Previous subnet mask = 11111111. 11111111. 11111111.00000000 or 255.255.255.0
3 additional bits added, so the new subnet mask = 11111111. 11111111. 11111111.11100000 or 255.255.255.224

Step 2: Subnet Magic Number
subtract the last nonzero octet of the subnet mask from 256
256-224 = 32

Step 3 - List the subnet address, host range and the broadcast address.
The first subnet address will be 192.168.1.0/27 and the following subnets will be with increments of 32, the subnet
Magic Number we calculated in the previous step.
As shown in the table, once we have listed the subnet addresses, calculating the host range and broadcast address is relatively simple. The broadcast address will be the last address of the subnet and one less the preceding subnet address. The host range will start from the next address after the subnet address for example for the subnet 192.168.1.32/27 the host range will start at 192.168.1.33 and end at one less the broadcast address
Summary:
Subnets=2n
Where: n=number of bits required for Subnetting
Used to calculate the subnets
Host=2h-2
where h=remaining bits in host portion
Used to calculate usable host addresses
Subnet Address Host Range Broadcast Address
192.168.1.0/27 192.168.1.1 -192.168.1.30 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.32/27 192.168.1.33 -192.168.1.62 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64/27 192.168.1.65 -192.168.1.94 192.168.1.95
192.168.1.96/27 192.168.1.97 - 192.168.1.126 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128/27 192.168.1.129 - 192.168.1.158 192.168.1.159
192.168.1.160/27 192.168.1.161 - 192.168.1.190 192.168.1.191
192.168.1.192/27 192.168.1.193 - 192.168.1.222 192.168.1.223
192.168.1.224/27 192.168.1.225 - 192.168.1.254 192.168.1.255

Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
VLSM occurs when an internetwork uses more than one mask in different subnets of a single Class A, B or C network. It allows more granular distribution of IP addressing and avoids address wastage. For example: On point-to-point links only two IP addresses are required and thus using subnet mask of /24 which is used throughout an internetwork is not a scalable solution.
For routing protocols to support VLSM, routing protocol must advertise the subnet number and the subnet mask.

The routing protocol is assumed classless if VLSM is supported and vice versa
An IP address is necessary for an inter-networking device to communicate and exchange information with each other . RIP version 2, EIGRP, and OSPF support VLSM and therefore are classless Problems with VLSM: Overlapping subnets:
For example: Consider 172.16.4.1/23 and 172.16.5.1/24
The first, last and broadcast host for 172.16.4.1/23 are: 172.16.4.1, 172.16.5.254 and 172.16.5.255
The first, last and broadcast host for 172.16.5.1/23 are: 172.16.5.1, 172.16.5.254 and 172.16.5.255
Solution: The only solution is re-number one of the overlapping VLSM subnets

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
A host can be assigned an IP address in two ways:
1. Static configuration:
2. Dynamic configuration

DHCP is used to assign IP addresses dynamically. It is based on BOOTP procotol
Uses UDP as the delivery protocol. Server uses port number 67 and client uses port 68.

The following process occurs when a client request IP address from a DHCP server:
1. client broadcasts a DISCOVERmessage
2. DHCP server reply back with an OFFER message to the client
3. client then REQUEST the DHCP server for the IP address
4. DHCP server send either ACK or NACK; either an IP address is assigned or the request is denied The address assignment process is depict in the following diagram
DHCP Client Configuration Example on Cisco IOS





Router R1:
interface fastethernet0/0
ip address dhcp <- Configures the interface as the DHCP client to dynamically obtain IP
interface fastethernet 0/1
ip address 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
ip dhcp pool POOLA
network 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0
dns-server 192.168.1.100 192.168.1.101
default-router 192.168.1.1
domain-name ABC.COM
Domain Naming System (DNS)
DNS is used to resolve IP address to (easily remembered) names
Uses both TCP and UDP as the transport protocol with port number 53
Configuration Example: DNS Client Configuration
The name servers used belong to www.OpenDNS.comand are illustrated for education purpose only
The 208.67.220.220 is the primary name server and 208.67.222.222 is the secondary name server

CCNA: NAT CHEAT SHEET

Key Characteristics
Standard:RFC3022
Short term solution to overcome the address requirement to connect with internet
Enables an organization to use Private AddressingScheme(definedinRFC1918) and
Still connect to the internet
Private Address Space
Private IPaddressing is defined in RFC1918 according which the following Ipaddress blocks
Can be used within an organization for private use:
1.10.0.0.0/8
2.172.16.0.0/12
3.192.168.0.0/16

NAT Address Types
Inside Local Address:  the IP Address assigned to the host on the inside network.This address is usually from the RFC1918 Private address space.

Inside Global Address: It is the Ip address of an inside host(oragroupofhosts) as it appears to
the outside network. It is usually an address that is globally routable.

Outside Local Address: the IP address assigned to an outside host as it appears to the inside network. The address is allocated from an address space routable on inside network

Outside Global Address: the IP address of an outside host assigned by the owner/administrator of the host. Allocated from a globally routable address space.

Types of NAT
There are 3 types:
1.Static NAT
•A single local IPaddress is mapped to single global IPaddress. Also called one-to-one NAT

2.Dynamic NAT
•A pool of global addresses is used to translate local IP addresses.  Each inside host is assigned a global address for the duration of the session.
If the session is timed-out, the specific IPaddress is available to use for other inside hosts

3.Port Address Translation



•Also called overloading NAT.If a large number of host need to access the internet,
then static and dynamic NAT are not feasible solutions as a large number of public IP addresses will be required.PAT actually translates multiple local addresses to asingle global address using different ports.

Configuration Example: Static NAT
Router R1:
interface fastethernet0/1
ipaddress 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
ip nat inside
!
interface fastethernet0/0
ipaddress 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
ip nat outside
!
ip nat inside source static 192.168.1.10 172.16.1.1
R1#sh ip nat translation
Pro Inside global Inside local Outside local Outside global
---172.16.1.1 192.168.1.10 ------

Configuration Example: Dynamic NAT
Router R1:
interface fastethernet0/1
ipaddress 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
ipnatinside
!
interface fastethernet0/0
ipaddress 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
ipnatoutside
!
ipaccess-list standard INSIDE-HOSTS
permit 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255
!
ipnatpool NAT-POOL 155.1.1.1 155.1.1.254 netmask255.255.255.0
!
ipnatinside source list INSIDE-HOSTS pool NAT-POOL

R1#sh ipnattranslation
Pro Inside globalInside local Outside local Outside global
---155.1.1.1 192.168.1.1 ------
---155.1.1.2 192.168.1.2 ------
---155.1.1.3 192.168.1.3 ------

Configuration Example: Port Address Translation
Router R1:
interface fastethernet0/1
ipaddress 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
ipnatinside
!
interface fastethernet0/0
ipaddress 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
ipnatoutside
!
ipaccess-list standard INSIDE-HOSTS
permit 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255
!
ip nat inside source list INSIDE-HOSTS interface fastethernet0/0 overload

R2#sh ip nat translation
Pro Inside global Inside local Outside local Outside global
Icmp10.1.1.1:5 192.168.1.1 10.1.1.3:5 10.3.3.3:5
icmp10.1.1.1:6 192.168.1.2 10.1.1.4:6 10.3.3.4:6
tcp10.1.1.1:41683 192.168.1.3:41683 10.1.1.3:23 10.3.3.3:23
tcp10.1.1.1:51780 192.168.1.3:51780 10.3.1.4:80 10.3.3.4:80

Troubleshooting Command
1.show ip nat translation
2.show ip nat translation verbose
3.debug ip nat [detailed


  


CCNA: OSI TCP/IP CHEAT SHEET

Open System Interconnect (OSI) Model
It is model to sub-divide the communication system into smaller parts
Layers provide service to upper layers and vice versa
There are seven OSI layers
Layer-1 or Physical Layer: defines the physical and electrical specification for the devices. Data unit is in Bits
Layer-2 or Data Link Layer: provides the functional and procedural means to transfer. The data unit at this layer is called Frames. Also provide the error correction that may occurred at layer-1. Data link layer is subdivided into:
1. Media Access Control (MAC) layer: defines the addressing schemes at layer-2
2. Logical Link Control (LLC): defines the flow control and acknowledgment methods
Layer-3 or Network Layer: defines the (end-to-end) logical address, traffic forwarding and path determination. The data unit at the layer is called Packet.
Layer-4 or Transport Layer: ensures transparent transfer of data between end users by providing reliable (or unreliable) transfer services. Reliable delivery is ensured by means error correction and flow control. The data unit is called Segment.
Layer-5 or Session Layer: responsible for connection setup, maintenance and tear down between network entities.
Data unit called Datagrams. A session could be:
1. Simplex: data transfer in one direction only
2. Half-Duplex: bi-directional communication but only one network device can transmit in the given time
3. Full-Duplex: bi-directional communication and both devices can transmit at the given time
Layer-6 or Presentation Layer: responsible for inter-host communication. Receives data from application layer and converts to suitable format. For example: character conversion, encryption/decryption, compress and terminal emulation. Data unit called Datagrams
Layer-7 or Application Layer: responsible for application-to-application communication. Data unit called Datagrams

OSI and TCP/IP Model and Protocols

TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP is framework for computer network protocols created by DARPA in 1970s. It has four layers:
Link Layer: is analogous to Data Link layer of the OSI model. TCP/IP was designed to be hardware independent hence implemented on the top of the virtually any hardware networking device Internet Layer: has two functions
1. Host Addressing and Identification
2. Packet Routing
Transport Layer: responsible for end-to-end delivery of traffic along with error control segmentation, congestion control, flow control and application addressing (in term of port numbers)
Application Layer: It refer to the session, presentation and application layers of the OSI reference model



Troubleshooting
OSI model uses bottomup approach
Layer 1 (physical) problems
• Interface administrative shutdown
• Faulty or broken cables
• Broken or faulty pins/connectors
• No power
• No cable connected or wrong interface
• Failing or damaged interface
• Incorrect cable for the interface

When there is a physical layer problem, the following states are applicable to router interfaces:
1. Administratively down/down – not configured
2. Down/down – L1
Layer 2 (data link) problems
• Incorrect configuration on the interface
• Clock rate missing or incorrect
• Incorrect layer 2 protocol settings
• Faulty network card
• Interface shut down

In case of a layer-2 problem, the following states are applicable to router interface:
1. Up/Down
Layer 3 (network) problems
• Mis-configured routing protocol
• Incorrect IP/network addressing
• Incorrect subnet masking
Usually both physical and line protocol are in up/up state


Example: Let us consider a simple network running RIP version 2 (as shown figure). The network numbers are 10.0.0.0, 11.0.0.0, 12.0.0.0, and 13.0.0.0. We know that each router should be able to see all of the networks. For Router A, we know that networks 10.0.0.0 and 11.0.0.0 are directly connected to the router. Networks 12.0.0.0, and 13.0.0.0 should be in the routing table as a RIP route. In order for this to happen all of the interfaces connected to the other routers should be up/up and the correct routes should be in the routing table Rather than checking to see if the cables are attached first check to see if the router can see the other networks

RouterA# show ip route | begin Gateway
Gateway of last resort is not set
C 10.0.0.0/24 is directly connected, 10.0.0.1 We can see that only the directly connected Ethernet network can be seen. The WAN network is not there. Start at
layer 1 and check that the router can see the cable
RouterA# show controllers serial 0
HD unit 0, idb = 0x1AE828, driver structure at 0x1B4BA0
buffer size 1524 HD unit 0, V.35 DTE cable
So we can see that the cable is attached. It is a DTE cable, so we know we do not need to use the “clock rate” command on this interface. If the cable on the other end was DCE then it should have the “clock rate” command configured on it. Next we need to check layer 2. The interface has a cable attached but is it showing up/up?

RouterA#show ip interface brief
Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol
Serial0 11.0.0.1 YES unset administratively down down
Ethernet0 10.0.0.1 YES unset up up

Troubleshooting
Somebody has neglected to open or “no shutdown” the serial interface. This can easily be corrected with the “no shut” command
RouterA#config terminal
RouterA(config)#interface serial 0
RouterA(config-if)#no shutdown
%LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface Serial0, changed state to up
RouterA(config-if)#end
%LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface Serial0, changed state to down
%LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface Serial0, changed state to down
We should now look at the interfaces to see if there is a difference
RouterA#show ip interface brief
Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol
Serial0 11.0.0.1 YES unset up down
Ethernet0 10.0.0.1 YES unset up up
Okay, so now the interface is administratively up; however, it is showing as up/down. If the serial interface cannot see keepalives from the other interface then it will remain up/ down. We need to examine the configuration on our serial interface and compare it with its neighbor on Router B

RouterA#show run interface serial 0
interface Serial0
ip address 11.0.0.1 255.255.255.0
no ip directed-broadcast
encapsulation ppp
The encapsulation type is set to PPP that is not the default HDLC. The diagram indicates that this side should be using PPP. On Router B, we would also check to make sure the interfaces are up/up We can see that the interface connected to Router A is down down. We can check the configuration on the interface to see what could be wrong

RouterB#show run interface serial 0
interface Serial0
ip address 11.0.0.2 255.255.255.0
no ip directed-broadcast
clock rate 128000 « clock rate present
We can immediately see a difference between the configurations on Router A and Router B. Router A's serial interface shows that the encapsulation is set to PPP. Router B does not show an encapsulation type because it is left at the default for Cisco which is HDLC

RouterB#show interface serial 0
Serial1 is down, line protocol is down
Hardware is HD64570
Internet address is 12.0.0.1/24
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 1544 Kbit, DLY 1000 usec, rely 255/255, load 1/255
Encapsulation HDLC, loopback not set, keepalive set (10 sec)

RouterB#show ip interface brief
Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol
Serial0 11.0.0.2 YES unset up Down
Serial1 12.0.0.1 YES unset down Down
Ethernet0 unassigned YES unset administratively down Down
Ethernet1 unassigned YES unset administratively down Down
Bri0 unassigned YES unset administratively down Down
Bri0:1 unassigned YES unset administratively down Down
Bri0:2 unassigned YES unset administratively down Down

Troubleshooting
We can now change the encapsulation type (layer 2) to HDLC
RouterA#config t
RouterA(config)#interface serial 0
RouterA(config-if)#encapsulation hdlc
RouterA(config-if)#end
%LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface Serial0, changed state to up
%LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface Serial0, changed state to up
%SYS-5-CONFIG_I: Configured from console by console
So now we are satisfied that layers 1 and 2 are now operational. To confirm, we ping Router A from Router B
RouterA#ping 11.0.0.2
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 5, 100-byte ICMP Echos to 11.0.0.2, timeout is 2 seconds:
!!!!!
Success rate is 100 percent (5/5), round-trip min/avg/max = 1/2/4 ms
We can now check the routing table for Router A to see if it can see the rest of the network
RouterA#show ip route | begin Gateway
Gateway of last resort is not set
C 10.0.0.0/24 is directly connected, 10.0.0.1
C 11.0.0.0/24 is directly connected, 11.0.0.1
R 12.0.0.0/24 [120/1] via 11.0.0.2, 00:01:33, Serial0
This is better than before; however, we still can only see as far as network 12.0.0.0. We could check on Router B, but since network 13.0.0.0 is connected to Router C, we can start there
Both interfaces are up/up, so we know that the Ethernet interface can see its own network (13.0.0.0) and that the serial interface is capable of advertising the route. Layers 1 and 2 appear fine, so we can check layer 3. We could type in the “show run” command; however, we could be more specific than that

RouterC#show ip protocols
Routing Protocol is "rip"
Sending updates every 30 seconds, next due in 19 seconds
Invalid after 180 seconds, hold down 180, flushed after 240
Outgoing update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Incoming update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Redistributing: rip
Default version control: send version 2, receive version 2
Interface Send Recv Triggered RIP Key-chain
Ethernet0 2 2
Serial0 2 2
Automatic network summarization is not in effect
Maximum path: 4
Routing for Networks:
12.0.0.0
14.0.0.0
Routing Information Sources:
Gateway Distance Last Update
12.0.0.1 120 00:00:17
Distance: (default is 120)

RouterB#show ip interface brief
Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol
Serial0 11.0.0.1 YES unset up Up
Ethernet0 10.0.0.1 YES unset up Up
RouterC#show ip interface brief
Interface IP-Address OK? Method Status Protocol
Serial0 12.0.0.2 YES unset up Up
Ethernet0 13.0.0.1 YES unset up Up

Troubleshooting
The problem appears to be that although network 13.0.0.0 is attached to ethernet 0, the router has been configured to advertise network 14.0.0.0.We can easily correct this problem
RouterC#configure terminal
RouterC(config)#router rip
RouterC(config)#version 2
RouterC(config-router)#no network 14.0.0.0
RouterC(config-router)#network 13.0.0.0
RouterC(config-router)#^Z
%SYS-5-CONFIG_I: Configured from console by console

RouterC#show ip protocols
Routing Protocol is "rip"
Sending updates every 30 seconds, next due in 19 seconds
Invalid after 180 seconds, hold down 180, flushed after 240
Outgoing update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Incoming update filter list for all interfaces is not set
Redistributing: rip
Default version control: send version 2, receive version 2
Interface Send Recv Triggered RIP Key-chain
Ethernet0 2 2
Serial0 2 2
Automatic network summarization is in effect
Maximumpath: 4
Routing for Networks:
12.0.0.0
13.0.0.0
Routing Information Sources:
Gateway Distance Last Update
12.0.0.1 120 00:00:17
Distance: (default is 120)
We are now advertising the correct networks. We should check that Router C can see all of the networks before we move on

RouterC#show ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
U - per-user static route
Gateway of last resort is not set
C 12.0.0.0/24 is directly connected, 12.0.0.2
C 13.0.0.0/24 is directly connected, 13.0.0.1
R 11.0.0.0/24 [120/1] via 12.0.0.1, 00:07:13, Serial0
R 10.0.0.0/24 [120/2] via 12.0.0.1, 00:06:37, Serial0
We can go back to Router A to see if it can see all of the networks

RouterA#show ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
U - per-user static route
Gateway of last resort is not set
C 10.0.0.0/24 is directly connected, 10.0.0.1
C 11.0.0.0/24 is directly connected, 11.0.0.1
R 12.0.0.0/24 [120/1] via 11.0.0.2, 00:04:17, Serial0
R 13.0.0.0/24 [120/2] via 11.0.0.2, 00:04:34, Serial0
All the routes are now visible

 CCNA: OSPF CHEAT SHEET


Key Characteristics
Type: Link State
Algorithm: Dijkstra’s (Shortest Path First) Algorithm
Standard: RFC 2328
Administrative Distance: 110
Metric: Cost
Protocol/Protocol Number: IP/89
Authentication: Yes (MD5 and Plain Text)
Supports VLSM and Route Summarization
Support for IPv6 (RFC 2740)
Fast Convergence
Metric Calculation
Cost = 100 Mbps / Link Speed

OSPF cost can be modified in three ways:
1. (config-if)#ip ospf cost
2. (config-if)#bandwidth
3. (config-router)#auto-costreference-bandwidth

Neighbor Process
To become neighbors OSPF routers must be agree on the
following parameters
1. Area ID
2. Same subnet
3. Authentication (if used)
4. Hello Interval and Dead Interval
5. Area Type (Stub, NSSA)
6. Router IDs must be unique

OSPF Neighbor States
Down: Previously known neighbor has failed
Init: an interim state in which Hello has been heard from the neighbor but that Hello does not list the local router’s RID
Two-way: the neighbor has sent a Hello that lists the local router’s RID in the list of seen routers
Full: Both routers complete the database exchange process and have identical LSDB. Fully adjacent Router ID (RID) Router ID must be configured before an OSPF process
could be started.

Cisco Routers uses the following criteria to select arouter ID:
1. RID configured with “router-id” command
2. If manual RID not configured, select the highest number IP address on any loopback interface in “up/up” state
3. If loopback interfaces not configured, select the highest number IP address on any non-loopback interface in “up/up” state

Router Types
Internal Router: whose (all) interfaces resides within the same area
Backbone Router: A router that resides in the backbone area
Area Border Router: an ABR connect two or more Areas
ASBR: Autonomous System Boundary Router or an ASBR connects an external routing domain to an OSPF routing domain

Route Types and Preference
Intra-Area Routes: A route to a network in the same area as the router. Denoted by “O” in the routing table.
Inter-Area Routes: A route to a network in another area as the router. Denoted by “O IA” in the routing table
External Route: A route to network that is external to the OSPF routing domain. Denoted by ‘E1’ or ‘E2’ in the routing table.
Routes Preference:
1. Intra-Area (O) > Inter-Area (O IA)
2. Inter-Area (O IA) > External Type-1 (E1)
3. External Type-1 (E1) > External Type-2 (E2)

Areas
OSPF runs SPF algorithm and requires a lot of processing power and memory. If the size of network is too large this could cause slower convergence and can lead to following problems:
1. more memory is required to maintain the link state database
2. more processing power is required to process the link state database
3. the links state database grows exponentially with the size of OSPF domain
4. a single change in network topology (for example: link up/down) would trigger all routers to re-run the SPF (again) to calculate the shortest path
To cope with these problems, areas are configured. There are two basic types:
1. Backbone Area or Area 0: All other area must be connected to area 0
2. Non-backbone Area: any other area with area-id other than zero

Timers
Hellos are sent to multicast address: 224.0.0.5 (ALLSPFRouters)
Broadcast Multi-access  and p2p= 10 seconds
NBMA = 30 seconds

Dead Timer = Four Times the hello interval
Broadcast and p2p= 40 seconds
NBMA = 120 seconds
To change hello and dead intervals use the command ‘config-if)# ip ospf hello-interval seconds’ and ‘config-if)# ip ospf dead-interval seconds’

Designated Router (DR) / Backup DR (BDR) Election
There are two problems with multi-access networks:
1. For “N” routers, it requires “N(N-1)/2” adjacencies
2. Flooding of this excess LSAs would be chaotic itself for the network
DR/BDR addresses the challenge of adjacency creation and LSA flooding on multi-access networks only
No election on P2P and P2MP network type
The following criteria is used for DR/BDR election:
1. Router with highest interface priority is elected as DR
2. Any other router with second highest priority is elected as BDR
3. If priority is equal, highest RID is used as tie-breaker
4. The DR/BDR election is held between two or more neighbors who reach the TWO-WAY state
The priority ranges from 0-to-255 and default value is 1
Priority of 0 means that router will not take part in DR and BDR election
DR is never preempted even if a router with better priority is present. Manual reset is required for preemption If a router becomes active and it checks for an active DR and BDR on the network. If there already is an active DR and BDR on the segment, the new router simply accepts them. If there is not, then an election is held for DR/BDR selection After the DR/BDR have been elected, the other router known as DROthers establish adjacencies with DR and BDR only Neighbors are still tracked on multicast address: 224.0.0.5 but DROthers multicast updates to AllDRRouters address: 224.0.0.6. Only DR and BDR listen to this address and DR in-turn flood updates to DROthers on 224.0.0.5 DR/BDR is property of a router’s interface not the router itself

Virtual Links
It is link through non-backbone area to backbone area.
Used to connect:
1. an area to backbone area through non-backbone area
2. a partitioned backbone area through non-backbone area
Rules:
1. A virtual link can only be configured between ABRs
2. The transit area must have full routing information and it cannot be stub

Single Area


Router R1:
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.1 255.255.255.0
!
router ospf 100
router-id 1.1.1.1
network 192.168.12.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
network 10.1.1.1 0.0.0.0 area 0
Router R2:
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.2.2.2 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.2 255.255.255.0
!
router ospf 100
router-id 2.2.2.2
network 192.168.12.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
network 10.2.2.2 0.0.0.0 area 0

• Configuration Example
R2# show ip route | begin Gateway
Gateway of last resort is not set
C 192.168.12.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
C 10.2.2.0/24 is directly connected, Loopback0
O 10.1.1.1/32 [110/65] via 192.168.12.1, 00:00:02, Serial0/0

Multi-Area


Router R1:
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.1 255.255.255.0
!
interface serial 0/1
ip address 192.168.13.1 255.255.255.0
!
router ospf 100
router-id 1.1.1.1
network 192.168.12.1 0.0.0.0 area 0
network 192.168.13.1 0.0.0.0 area 1
network 10.1.1.1 0.0.0.0 area 0
Router R2:
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.2.2.2 255.255.255.255
!
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.12.2 255.255.255.0
!
router ospf 100
router-id 2.2.2.2
network 192.168.12.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
network 10.2.2.2 0.0.0.0 area 0
Router R3:
interface serial 0/0
ip address 192.168.13.3 255.255.255.0
!
interface loopback 0
ip address 10.3.3.3 255.255.255.255
!
router ospf 100
router-id 3.3.3.3
network 192.168.13.3 0.0.0.0 area 1
network 10.1.1.3 0.0.0.0 area 1
R2# show ip route | begin Gateway
Gateway of last resort is not set
C 192.168.12.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0/0
O IA 192.168.13.0/24 [110/128] via 192.168.12.1, 00:00:03, Serial0/0
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 3 subnets, 2 masks
O IA 10.3.3.3/32 [110/129] via 192.168.12.1, 00:00:12, Serial0/0
C 10.2.2.0/24 is directly connected, Loopback0
O 10.1.1.1/32 [110/65] via 192.168.12.1, 00:00:12, Serial0/0

OSPF Troubleshooting Command
1. show ip protocols
2. show ip ospf []
3. show ip route [ospf]
4. show ip ospf interface [brief | ]
5. show ip ospf neighbor
6. show ip ospf database
7. debug ip ospf [hello | adjacency | events]




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